Desirable Teaching Principles for
Young English Learners in Japan

by Emiko Yukawa
Ritsumeikan University

Desirable Teaching Principles

What are desirable teaching principles that primary school English teachers
should keep in mind? Having fun? Rich input? Use of visual aids and/or
music? Experiential activities? Many activities/materials are available
these days both online and in book form. This article tries to examine
the principles behind such techniques so that we all can reevaluate our
daily practices in a different light. It will do so from four different
perspectives, namely, the cognitive- interactionist theory (Long, 2009, p. 386) of second language acquisition and teaching, sociocultural
theory, motivation studies, as well as young learners' (YLs') characteristics
derived from expertsIobservation and empirical evidence, in this order.

Long's Ten Pedagogical Principles

The first perspective is that of mainstream second language research and
teaching that is shaped by cognitive-interactionist theory. Long lists
ten methodological principles for language teaching in general: (1) Use
task, not text, as the unit of analysis; (2) Promote learning by doing;
(3) Elaborate input (do not simplify), do not rely solely on "authentic"
texts; (4) Provide rich (not impoverished) input; (5) Encourage inductive
("chunk") learning; (6) Focus on form; (7) Provide negative feedback; (8)
Respect "learner syllabuses"/developmental processes; (9) Promote cooperative
/ collaborative learning; (10) Individualize instruction (psycholinguistically,
and according to communicative needs) (Long, 2009, p. 386-7). Even though
many of these concepts are well known to many language teachers, it may
be useful to reiterate some of them here with examples from Japanese young
learners' classrooms.

As for the use of tasks (and thus use of the focus on form approach as a closely linked concept to realize meaning/ message-based
teaching), the English level of Japanese elementary school pupils is so
low that it is rather difficult to use tasks as units in the curriculum
throughout the year. However, at certain times (e.g., the end of each semester
or year) accomplishing an appealing task can provide pupils with a sense
of achievement that heightens their motivation toward learning. For example,
a public school in Kyoto (J School hereinafter) has been using a year-final
task in a skillful way for its 6th graders for 4 years. The task is called
Let's Talk (Yukawa, Takanashi, & Koyama, 2009, 2009-2010), a casual 3-5 minute
conversation with an adult native speaker. This task, and 6th graders'
work towards it in five lessons prior to the task, show how setting this
conversation performance opportunity as the ultimate goal of the (in-total)
six lessons functions as a meaningful and rewarding learning experience,
in comparison to, for example, just reviewing the phrases (that they would
have used in the conversation) for accuracy.

With regard to providing rich and elaborated input (numbers 3 and 4 above), most language teachers know that rich input at
the right level is absolutely necessary. The hard part is how to keep speaking
English to beginner-level learners without losing their attention. Especially
in elementary schools, and much more than in secondary schools or universities,
frequent and skillful use of teacher talk strategies (Chaudron, 1988; Inaoka,
2004; Tabuchi, Matsuo, & Mitsugi, 2009; Wong-Fillmore, 1985) is crucial
for providing English for meaningful interaction (not for formal drilling).
Using English as the medium of instruction will become the norm with no
major resistance from pupils if a teacher presents visuals and gestures,
paraphrases a message in a variety of ways, endorses pupils' guessing,
offers answer options to her own questions, and possibly (in a team-teaching
situation) asks the other teacher questions about the exact parts that
their students are unclear about.

Number 8 in Long's list is related to the learner syllabus (as opposed to the syllabus provided by the teacher or the textbook writer).
Teachers who teach English at elementary schools are probably in a better
position to observe the developmental stages of their pupils than are secondary
school teachers, who tend to use a teacher-fronted, whole-class teaching
style in larger classes, in which such developmental differences among
students are often unnoticed.

Some of the developmental issues and individual differences could be overcome by applying numbers 9 and 10 in Long's list, namely, collaborative learning and individualized instruction. The example of J School referred to above would illustrate the point
again. The Let's Talk task is a joint endeavor with two pupils and one native-speaking conversation
partner. Either of the paired pupils can bring up whatever topic (birthday,
favorite foods/sports/colors/places, etc.) they can, and thus they do not
necessarily each have to ask or answer the same questions. Some can initiate
conversation more frequently by asking many questions, while others can
contribute to the conversation in different ways such as giving follow-ups,
back-channeling, and using more facial expressions. In previous years,
J School also videotaped group presentations of the pupils' self-introductions.
In this task, the difficulty of the presentation was adjusted through negotiation
with pupils according to their needs and preferences (use of learner autonomy
stressed by Nikolov, 2010). Quick learners presented fairly long monologues,
while slow learners wanted to be interviewed in the video so that they
could answer only with cues, and still others presented themselves in pairs
and talked about each other.

As for some of the items in Long's list which were not commented on above, most of them (except for number 6 Focus on form) are applicable to teaching YLs in Japan. Since most elementary school English lessons are given by homeroom teachers who have limited English skills, it is extremely difficult to conduct lessons focusing on meaning or content inasmuch as this requires using English as the medium of instruction. Having said that, however, the author does not mean that it is impossible to have meaningful interaction in Japanese elementary school classrooms. In fact, the use of basic English is encouraged to introduce topics and materials very close to pupils' daily lives, such as when teachers incorporate photos and stories from their pupil's school and home lives. Lesson units could be organized around forms (topics) but still include much meaningful interaction.

Language as a Social Phenomenon and Language Only to be Developed Socially

The second perspective from which this article discusses desirable teaching
principles is that of sociocultural theory (SCT hereinafter, Lantolf & Thorn, 2006, 2007). Lantolf & Thorn
(2007, p. 1) say that SCT is "a theory of mind…that recognizes the
central role that social relationships and culturally constructed artifacts
play in organizing uniquely human forms of thinking." Lightbown &
Spada (2006, p. 20) say that, for Vygotsky, on whom SCT bases its theory
construction, any higher order cognitive development, including language
development, happens as the result of social interaction. This is in contrast
to other psychologists, such as Piaget, for whom language development is
the acquisition of "a symbol system" which develops "through
physical interaction with the environment." SCT does not apply to
learning a few nouns such as fruit, animal, or vegetable terms, in other
words referential meaning, but it targets conceptual meaning (Lantolf & Thorn, 2006, p. 4). Lantolf & Thorn go on to say that learning a new language is "about acquiring new conceptual knowledge and/or modifying already existing knowledge as a way of re-mediating one's interaction with the world and with one's own psychological functioning" (p. 5).

One example from an elementary school classroom illustrates the importance
of social interaction stressed above. Two 6th graders (X and Y) are conversing
with a volunteer teacher (Japanese teacher of English) in a semi-formal
conversation practice session. They have learned how to ask and answer
some basic questions about themselves as well as use a few phrases for
back-chanelling (e.g., I see. Me, too.). One boy (X) says that he likes soccer when asked his favorite sport
by the teacher. The teacher shakes hands with him, saying "Me, too"
in order to express in a friendly manner that she shares a liking for soccer
with him. The other boy (Y) waits a second, his facial expression showing
that he is thinking hard, then suddenly turns to X, offering a hand with
a big smile and says "Me, too." Immediately after that he says
he likes basketball when the teacher asks a question about his favorite
sport, which is apparently the answer he had prepared beforehand. This
episode shows that even though Y already had the linguistic forms needed
for the conversation, as well as handy back-chanelling phrases to help
the conversation flow smoothly, he is still learning in this social interaction
with an adult how to express commonality among conversation partners in
a friendly manner. Even though the particular strategy (shaking hands)
may not be a pragmatic routine practiced universally in English speaking
communities, the behavior communicated the speaker's intention well (interpreted
correctly by everybody present) and was quite effective. This type of learning
would not happen without social interaction opportunities. Learning to
make sense of a discourse and practicing to become a capable participant
in the discourse require interaction partner(s). Thus, it is important
for teachers of YLs to try to organize such social interaction opportunities
in their teaching, no matter how short each session may be.

Language Learning Envisioning Fu-ture L2 Self

The third perspective, motivation, is linked to the second one above at its root, but this paper treats
it separately. Motivation is a complex notion; it is socio-psychological,
influenced by the community one lives in while, at the same time, it can
be very local and dynamic, affected by intra-classroom factors. What motivates
Japanese YLs to learn English? Unlike secondary-school learners, instrumental
motives such as being successful in university entrance exams or getting
good jobs are likely too remote for them. Furthermore, since there are
no major English-speaking com- munities (with geographical boundaries)
inside Japan, it is difficult for YLs to want to assimilate themselves
into an English speaking community and study the language for that purpose
(integrative motivation).

A recent and very influential model to explain motivation in second language learning, The L2 Self (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009), hypothesizes that a learner is motivated
to learn because he or she wants to become his or her ideal self (p. 9) rather than to identify himself or herself with someone in an external
English-speaking community. Dörnyei & Ushioda, (2009, p. 4) say, "if
proficiency in the target language is part and parcel of one's ideal or ought-to self, this will serve as a powerful motivator to learn the language because of our psychological desire to reduce the discrepancy between our current and possible future selves" (italics in original). Such conceptualization of motivation inevitably leads us to the issue of identity. Japanese YLs, who tend to live in relatively mono-cultural and monolingual communities, are, according to this model, in a disadvantaged position to envision L2-using selves, since they do not have opportunities to see competent L2 user adults or youngsters who might serve as their role models.

The author can think of two examples from Japanese elementary schools that
seem to aid pupils in developing such possible selves (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009, p. 3) in their minds. Both schools arrange
opportunities for their pupils to meet possible role models, namely nonnative
but fluent English-speaking young adults. One event is organized by a private
elementary school in Kyoto. This school is fortunate to have abundant resources
(both human and material) and teaches English two to three times a week
starting in grade 1. Every year, the school invites around 30-40 foreign
students who are studying at a Japanese university to an event called World Week, and lets the pupils interact with them for a week in their elementary
school. They get to know each other through self-introduction sessions
in which children introduce traditional Japanese toys and games to the
university students while the foreign students teach the children games
of their home countries or ethnic groups. The elementary pupils also guide
their guests around sightseeing spots in the city and upper grade children
listen to the foreign students' mini lectures on the personal importance
of studying and using English, delivered in simple English. Many of these
university students are themselves nonnative speakers of English who communicate
with each other in English every day.

The other example, a public school in Kyoto, accepts approximately 10 Japanese students (from one university) as volunteers to teach one 45-minute lesson at a time per week for 5 weeks in succession. The students are secondary (sometimes primary) school English teacher candidates and they speak English to the children and with each other in front of pupils. Teachers in this second school believe that the encounter with university students motivates their pupils to continue studying at secondary and tertiary levels. (For a more in-depth review of the effects on pupils' English learning and teacher trainees' practice, contact the editor at <editor@tcsig.jalt.org>.)

Language Teaching Accepting YLs' Strengths and Weaknesses

The last perspective from which we should discuss how to teach YLs is their
characteristics as language learners. First, YLs are slow in learning and
second, they tend to be better at implicit and inductive (chunk) learning
than at explicit and deductive (rule) learning. There is empirical evidence
about the slowness of YLs' learning (Muňoz, 2009; Nikolov, 2009a, 2009b).
Johnstone lists reasons why this is so: older learners (OLs) have "a more
sophisticated conceptual map of the world"; "more experience in handling
the discourse of conversations, presentations, reports and other language
activities"; "greater adeptness in negotiating meaning"; and "greater likelihood
of having developed a wider range of strategies for leaning" (p. 34).

Generally speaking, YLs enjoy songs, games, and stories, in other words, those types of activities that are meaningful and enjoyable in themselves, rather than learning language for the sake of something else (such as tests). Even with 5th and 6th graders, some of whom are ready to learn English grammar through an explicit rule-learning approach, the allotted time for studying English at elementary school is limited compared to the four to five lessons per week—not to mention term exams and cram school lessons for some—in junior high schools. Thus it is important not to try to teach any rules in a categorical manner (e.g., all rules of comparison, everything about to-infinitives). Rather, it is wiser to try to teach only the patterns that pupils need to handle in the stories and dialogues they are to learn next.

As for the advantageous characteristics of YLs, Johnstone (2009, p. 34)
mentions their "relative ease in acquiring the sound system," their being
"less likely to be language anxious," and three more elements, all of which
are related to YLs' having more time to develop the L2. When teachers do
not respect these characteristics of YLs and resort to lessons similar
to those in junior high schools (form-based, rule-oriented teaching with
much grammar and translation), what often happens is that the higher grades
become quite challenging to teach because they tend to divide into two
groups: those who do not mind rule learning and memorizing words, and those
who do mind. If teachers fully respect the characteristics of YLs, however,
learners can grow to become quite promising beginner users of English even
in EFL situations (that is, not in immersion or ESL situations). The private
elementary school mentioned previously provides such an example.

In this school, English lessons are team-taught by a native-speaking teacher
and a qualified Japanese teacher of English. All curricula and materials
are created by the teaching staff. English lessons are basically all taught
in English from grades 1 to 6, using a lot of visual aids, gestures, and
a variety of teacher-talk strategies. Many stories are read to children
starting in grade 1, and with some minimal knowledge of phonics, pupils
gradually learn to read stories on their own in the middle grades. In the
higher grades, units are constructed around a target grammar item (e.g.,
passive voice) and/or a theme (e.g., historically important buildings in
Kyoto), and even when a certain form is the target of the lesson, every
sentence the pupils are exposed to is carefully chosen so as to carry real
and truthful meaning. At this stage, pupils are not given any comprehensive
grammar book to study, based on the judgment that it is too early. (They
learn grammar in a systematic way starting in the 7th grade.) Below are
the strengths and weaknesses of pupils at this school after they have learned
English in this manner and proceeded to the 7th grade. This learner profile
shows us clearly how respecting YLs' characteristics at this stage is important
to the development of their basic communicative competence and positive
attitudes toward learning.

They are good at grasping the meaning of the message/text (in its first reading).
They do not mind listening to/reading a long text and their listening and reading skills are very high.
They like saying/writing things meaningful to themselves (i.e., truthful communicative contents).
They do not mind speaking in front of people.
They enjoy extensive reading.
Once they are given a format (fable, letter, cooking recipe, etc.) they are fluent in speaking/writing albeit with some grammatical/spelling errors.
They enjoy learning grammar in detail at junior high school for the first time.
They all like English lessons, even the ones whose grades (scores) are not necessarily high.
(This is information obtained from their teacher, Ms. Misa Nakanishi, on 6 August, 2011. Some publications about their teaching practices are available: Tabuchi & Okamoto, 2008; Tabuchi, Mitsugi & Okamoto, 2007; Tabuchi, Matuo & Mitsugi, 2009; Okamoto, Eldridge, Matsuo & Mitsugi, 2010.)

Conclusion

This paper has discussed desirable teaching principles for YLs in Japan drawing on four perspectives. During 6 years at elementary school, YLs grow rapidly, which requires us to make adjustments, and each school has unique socioeconomic backgrounds, teaching hours, teaching staff, resource availability, etc. Despite such variables, the author hopes that once we know what basic principles are desirable, lesson planning will be guided by these principles and lessons themselves will not stray far from them either.

　
　

The author's bio data:

Emiko Yukawa (PhD in Bilingualism, Stockholm University) is a professor at Ritsumeikan University, College of Letters, whereher main responsibility is to train future secondary school English teachers. Her research interests include English education at primary/secondary schools, bilingual education, and language attrition. Recently she has been supporting a number of elementary schools on a regular/irregular basis and their linked junior high school teachers as well, offering in-service teacher training and collecting data to evaluate their teaching practices.
The results are published as Communicative Competence Expected to be Learned in Elementary English Education (2009, in Japanese) and journal articles.

The author is grateful to professor Tetsuharu Koyama at Kyoto Notre Dame University for his valuable comments on an earlier draft of this paper.

　
　

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